Expert-level practical guide to cheese making covering milk science, equipment, cultures, fresh and aged processes, mold-ripened varieties, safety, and affinage. Structured for a reader who wants to make cheese from raw milk or store-bought, at kitchen scale or small farmstead scale, using equipment they can build or source affordably. Covers the full spectrum from 30-minute paneer to 12-month cheddar.

1. Introduction and History

Most people think cheese was invented. It was discovered — probably by accident when milk stored in a ruminant stomach bag curdled from residual rennet enzymes. The earliest direct evidence dates to 5500 BCE in Poland, where ceramic strainers tested positive for milk fat residues (Salque et al., Nature, 2013). That makes cheese older than the wheel.

The mechanism is simple. Milk is an emulsion of fat, protein, sugar, and water. Introduce acid or enzymes, and the protein matrix collapses, trapping fat and expelling water. Every cheese on earth is a variation on that single event — the variables are milk source, culture type, coagulation method, moisture removal rate, and aging conditions.

Before refrigeration, cheese was survival technology. A gallon of milk spoils in hours at room temperature. Convert it to hard cheese, and it stores for years. Roman legions carried it. Mongolian riders lived on dried curd. Medieval monasteries refined the aging process into an art that modern creameries still replicate.

The practical application: you can make edible cheese in 30 minutes with nothing more than milk, an acid, and a pot. You can make world-class aged cheese with a thermometer, cultures, rennet, a press you build from scrap wood, and a spare refrigerator. The barrier to entry is knowledge, not equipment.

2. Milk Science

Casein — The Structural Protein

Cheese is built from casein, which makes up about 80% of milk protein. Casein molecules exist as micelles — spherical clusters held together by calcium phosphate bridges. When you add acid or rennet, those bridges break. The micelles collapse into a gel network. That gel is curd.

Whey proteins (the other 20%) mostly wash out with the liquid. That is why whey protein supplements exist — they are a cheese-making byproduct.

Fat Content

Fat determines richness and texture. Whole milk (3.5-4% fat) produces a full-bodied cheese. Skim milk makes a rubbery, dry product. For the richest result, some makers add cream to whole milk, pushing fat content to 5-6%. This is how triple-cream brie reaches its characteristic texture.

Raw milk retains native lipase enzymes that develop sharper, more complex flavors during aging. Pasteurized milk produces milder, more predictable results.

Pasteurized vs. Raw

Pasteurization (161°F/72°C for 15 seconds, or 145°F/63°C for 30 minutes) kills pathogens. It also kills native bacteria and enzymes that contribute to flavor complexity. Ultra-pasteurized (UHT) milk has been heated to 280°F/138°C — this denatures whey proteins so severely that the milk will not form a proper curd. Never use ultra-pasteurized milk for cheese making.

Raw milk produces more complex cheese but carries risk of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, and pathogenic E. coli. FDA requires raw milk cheeses to age a minimum of 60 days, which allows acidification and salt concentration to reduce pathogen levels. Whether you use raw or pasteurized milk depends on your risk tolerance, your source, and your local regulations.

If using pasteurized (not ultra-pasteurized) milk, add calcium chloride at 1/4 teaspoon per gallon. Pasteurization disrupts calcium balance, weakening curd formation. Calcium chloride restores it.

Goat vs. Cow

Goat milk has smaller fat globules and lacks agglutinin, the protein that causes cream to rise in cow milk. This means goat milk produces a naturally homogenized, whiter cheese (no beta-carotene). The fat structure creates a tangier, more crumbly texture.

Cow milk forms larger, more cohesive curds. It presses more easily and ages more predictably. Most hard aged cheeses were developed with cow milk for this reason.

Sheep milk has nearly double the fat and protein of cow milk. It yields roughly twice as much cheese per gallon. Manchego, Roquefort, and Pecorino Romano are sheep milk cheeses. If you have access to sheep milk, it is the most efficient cheese-making milk by volume.

3. Equipment

Budget Path — Kitchen Scale

  • Pot: Heavy-bottomed stainless steel, 2-5 gallon capacity. Avoid aluminum (reacts with acid). A double boiler setup using two nested pots with water between them provides the most stable heat control.
  • Thermometer: Digital instant-read, accurate to 1°F. Analog dairy thermometers work but read slowly. Temperature precision matters — 2°F deviation changes curd character.
  • Knife or curd cutter: A long knife that reaches the bottom of your pot. Offset spatulas work. For consistent curd size, you can build a curd harp from stainless wire strung across a frame.
  • Cheesecloth: Use butter muslin (tight weave), not the loose hardware-store cheesecloth that lets fine curds escape. Reusable nylon draining bags are a better long-term investment.
  • Colander: For draining curds. Stainless steel, placed over a second pot to catch whey.
  • Molds: For fresh cheese, any perforated container works — plastic food containers with holes drilled in them are fine. For pressed cheese, PVC pipe with drilled drainage holes, lined with cheesecloth.
  • Press: Two boards and a weight. A Dutch-style press can be built from a 2x4 frame, a lever arm, and a bucket of water or concrete blocks for weight. Plans are widely available. Commercial presses start around $80, but a DIY press outperforms most of them.
  • pH strips or meter: pH 4.0-7.0 range strips are sufficient for most applications. A digital pH meter ($30-50) is more accurate and essential for aged and mold-ripened cheeses.

Proper Path — Farmstead Scale

  • Cheese vat: Stainless steel, double-walled with water jacket for precise temperature control. For small-scale, a 10-gallon bain-marie with a valve drain is adequate. Custom fabrication from a stainless stockpot and welded fittings costs less than commercial vats.
  • Curd mill: For cheddaring. Can be improvised by hand-tearing curds, but a dedicated mill produces uniform pieces for consistent salting.
  • Mechanical press: Spring-loaded or hydraulic for repeatable pressure. Dutch presses with weight markings are the standard.
  • Aging space: A dedicated refrigerator set to 50-55°F (10-13°C) with 80-85% humidity. Add a pan of salted water and a small fan for air circulation. A hygrometer is mandatory. Wine coolers work well for small batches because their temperature range matches aging requirements.
  • Wax or vacuum sealer: For bandaged or waxed rind cheeses. Cheese wax melts at lower temperatures than paraffin and stays flexible. Vacuum sealing eliminates rind management entirely for beginners.
  • Brining container: Food-grade plastic or stainless. Large enough to submerge your largest wheel.

4. Cultures and Rennet

Starter Cultures

Starter cultures are the bacteria that convert lactose into lactic acid, dropping pH and developing flavor. Two categories matter.

Mesophilic cultures work at moderate temperatures (70-102°F / 21-39°C). Used for cheddar, gouda, colby, feta, chevre, and most fresh cheeses. Common strains: Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and cremoris. These are the workhorse cultures for home cheese making.

Thermophilic cultures work at higher temperatures (104-131°F / 40-55°C). Used for mozzarella, parmesan, swiss, provolone, and other Italian and alpine styles. Common strains: Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. These are the same organisms in yogurt — you can use plain yogurt with live active cultures as a thermophilic starter in an emergency.

Culture suppliers sell packets sized per gallon. Store freeze-dried cultures in the freezer — they last 18+ months unopened. Once opened, reseal and use within 3-4 months.

For aged cheeses, secondary cultures add flavor complexity. Lactobacillus helveticus produces the sweet, nutty notes in swiss and gruyere. Propionibacterium freudenreichii generates the CO2 that forms swiss cheese eyes.

Rennet

Rennet contains the enzyme chymosin, which cleaves kappa-casein — the protein that keeps casein micelles suspended in liquid. Once kappa-casein is cut, micelles aggregate into curd.

Animal rennet is extracted from the fourth stomach of unweaned calves. It produces the most consistent curd and the cleanest flavor in aged cheeses. This is what was used for thousands of years.

Microbial rennet is produced by fermenting Rhizomucor miehei fungus. Vegetarian-friendly. Works well for fresh and short-aged cheeses. Some cheesemakers report slight bitterness in cheeses aged beyond 6 months.

Fermentation-produced chymosin (FPC) is made by genetically modified microorganisms that produce calf chymosin. Functionally identical to animal rennet. Used in approximately 90% of commercial cheese production in the US (Johnson & Lucey, Journal of Dairy Science, 2006). This is the best option if you want animal rennet performance without animal sourcing.

Vegetable rennet from thistle, fig sap, or nettles has been used historically in Mediterranean and Portuguese cheese making. Results vary and require experimentation. Thistle rennet produces distinctive bitter-floral notes prized in traditional Serra da Estrela cheese.

Liquid rennet is easier to measure than tablets. Standard dosage: 1/4 teaspoon single-strength liquid rennet per gallon of milk. Always dilute rennet in 1/4 cup cool, non-chlorinated water before adding to milk. Chlorine destroys rennet activity.

5. Fresh Cheese Process

Fresh cheeses require no aging, no press, and minimal equipment. These are where every cheesemaker should start.

Paneer (Acid-Set, No Culture)

  1. Heat 1 gallon whole milk to 190°F (88°C), stirring to prevent scorching.
  2. Remove from heat. Add 1/4 cup lemon juice or white vinegar, stir gently for 10 seconds.
  3. Let sit undisturbed 10 minutes. Curds will separate from clear, greenish whey.
  4. Strain through butter muslin over a colander. Rinse curds briefly with cool water to remove residual acid flavor.
  5. Gather muslin, twist, and press under a weight (a pot of water works) for 30-60 minutes.
  6. Unwrap. Cut into cubes. Refrigerate. Use within 5 days.

Yield: approximately 14-16 oz cheese per gallon.

Ricotta (Whey + Acid)

Traditional ricotta is made from whey — the liquid leftover from making other cheeses. The name means "recooked."

  1. Heat fresh whey to 200°F (93°C). If using whole milk instead of whey, heat to 185°F (85°C).
  2. Add 1/4 cup acid (vinegar or citric acid solution) per gallon.
  3. Fine white curds will form at the surface. Do not stir — let them rise.
  4. After 5 minutes, skim curds with a slotted spoon into a muslin-lined colander.
  5. Drain 15-30 minutes depending on desired moisture.
  6. Salt to taste. Use within 3 days.

Whole milk ricotta is richer than whey ricotta. For the best result, combine half whey and half whole milk.

Chevre (Cultured Goat Cheese)

  1. Heat 1 gallon goat milk to 86°F (30°C).
  2. Sprinkle 1/8 teaspoon mesophilic culture over surface. Let rehydrate 2 minutes, then stir in with gentle up-down strokes for 1 minute.
  3. Add 2 drops liquid rennet diluted in 2 tablespoons cool water. Stir gently 30 seconds.
  4. Cover and let sit at room temperature (72°F/22°C) for 12-18 hours. The long set allows lactic acid development, producing chevre's signature tang.
  5. The curd will be a solid gel with a thin layer of whey on top. Ladle into butter muslin-lined molds or a colander. Do not cut or break the curd — let it drain under its own weight.
  6. Drain 6-12 hours, flipping molds once if using individual molds.
  7. Salt exterior lightly. Add herbs, pepper, or ash if desired.
  8. Refrigerate. Use within 10 days.

Mozzarella (Stretched Curd)

This is a thermophilic, quick-acid cheese. Citric acid provides immediate acidity; rennet provides structure.

  1. Dissolve 1.5 teaspoons citric acid in 1 cup cool water. Add to 1 gallon cold milk in the pot, stir to combine.
  2. Heat slowly to 90°F (32°C), stirring gently. The milk will begin to curdle.
  3. Add 1/4 teaspoon liquid rennet diluted in 1/4 cup cool water. Stir slowly for 30 seconds in a figure-eight pattern, then stop the movement of the milk with your spoon.
  4. Cover and wait 5 minutes. Check for a clean break — insert a finger at 45 degrees and lift. The curd should split cleanly with clear whey filling the gap.
  5. Cut curd into 1-inch cubes. Let rest 5 minutes.
  6. Heat curds slowly to 105°F (40°C), gently stirring. Curds will shrink and firm up.
  7. Strain curds from whey. Press gently to remove excess whey.
  8. Microwave curds for 1 minute (or immerse in 170°F/77°C water). Knead with spoon or hands (gloves — it is hot). Stretch, fold, stretch. When curd becomes smooth, glossy, and stretches like taffy without tearing, it is done.
  9. Form into a ball. Drop into ice water for 5 minutes to set shape.
  10. Store in lightly salted water or whey in the refrigerator. Use within 5 days.

If the curd does not stretch, pH is wrong. Target pH at stretching is 5.1-5.3. Too high and it tears; too low and it becomes mushy.

6. Aged Cheese Process

Aged cheeses require more precision, patience, and equipment — but the core process is the same as fresh cheese with additional steps for moisture removal and rind development.

Farmhouse Cheddar

Yield: Approximately 1 lb cheese per gallon of milk.

Day 1 — Make Day

  1. Heat 2 gallons whole milk to 90°F (32°C).
  2. Add 1/4 teaspoon mesophilic culture. Let rehydrate 2 minutes, stir in gently. Hold at 90°F for 45 minutes (ripening period — culture multiplies and begins acidifying the milk).
  3. Add 1/2 teaspoon liquid rennet diluted in 1/4 cup cool water. Stir 1 minute, then still the milk. Cover and wait 45 minutes.
  4. Check for clean break. If gel is still soft, wait another 15 minutes.
  5. Cut curd into 3/8-inch cubes. Let rest (heal) for 5 minutes.
  6. Slowly raise temperature to 100°F (38°C) over 30 minutes, stirring gently every 5 minutes. This expels whey and firms the curd.
  7. Hold at 100°F for 30 minutes with gentle stirring.
  8. Drain whey until curds are just exposed.
  9. Cheddaring: Pack curds into a slab on one side of the pot. Let sit 15 minutes. Flip the slab. Wait 15 more minutes. The slab should develop a smooth, chicken-breast texture. Cut slab into fingers, stack, flip, and rest in 15-minute intervals for a total of 2 hours. Target pH at the end of cheddaring: 5.3-5.4.
  10. Mill the cheddared curd into thumb-sized pieces.
  11. Add 2 tablespoons cheese salt (non-iodized — iodine kills cultures). Toss to distribute evenly.
  12. Line a mold with cheesecloth. Pack salted curds firmly into mold.
  13. Press at 10 lbs for 15 minutes. Remove, flip, redress in cloth. Press at 20 lbs for 12 hours.

Day 2 — Unmolding and Drying

  1. Remove from press. Unwrap. The wheel should be smooth with no mechanical openings.
  2. Air dry at room temperature on a wooden board or mat for 2-3 days, flipping twice daily. A dry rind must form before waxing or bandaging.

Finishing Options

  • Waxing: Dip or brush with melted cheese wax (not paraffin). Two coats minimum. Creates an anaerobic rind.
  • Bandaging: Wrap in cheesecloth coated with lard or butter. Traditional method that allows the cheese to breathe and develop a natural rind.
  • Vacuum sealing: The simplest method. Eliminates rind management. Produces a slightly different flavor profile — less earthy, more mellow.

Aging: 60 days minimum (FDA requirement for raw milk). For flavor: 3 months produces mild cheddar, 6 months produces medium, 12+ months produces sharp. Age at 50-55°F (10-13°C), 80-85% humidity. Flip weekly.

Gouda

Gouda differs from cheddar primarily in the washing step — replacing whey with warm water during cooking.

  1. Follow cheddar steps 1-6 (make, ripen, set, cut, cook to 100°F).
  2. After cooking, drain off 1/3 of the whey. Replace with 100°F water. This washes lactose from the curds, producing a sweeter, less acidic cheese.
  3. Continue heating to 104°F (40°C) over 15 minutes.
  4. Drain whey. Pack curds into mold under warm whey (this prevents mechanical openings).
  5. Press at 10 lbs for 30 minutes, then 20 lbs for 6 hours, then 30 lbs for 12 hours, flipping between each stage.
  6. Brining: Submerge the wheel in saturated brine (salt dissolved in water until no more dissolves — about 26% by weight, plus 1 tablespoon calcium chloride and 1 teaspoon white vinegar per gallon to maintain rind integrity). Brine 3 hours per pound of cheese. Flip halfway.
  7. Air dry 2-3 days. Wax.
  8. Age at 50-55°F, 80-85% humidity. Young gouda: 2 months. Aged: 6+ months.

The washed-curd technique is what separates gouda's caramel sweetness from cheddar's sharp tang. Less residual lactose means less acid production during aging.

7. Mold-Ripened Cheeses

Brie and Camembert — Penicillium candidum

These are surface-ripened cheeses. White mold grows on the outside and ripens the cheese from rind to center.

  1. Heat 2 gallons whole milk to 90°F. Add 1/4 teaspoon mesophilic culture and 1/16 teaspoon P. candidum powder. Stir. Ripen 90 minutes at 90°F.
  2. Add 1/4 teaspoon liquid rennet diluted in 1/4 cup water. Set 90 minutes for a very soft curd.
  3. Cut curd into 1-inch cubes — large cuts retain moisture, which these cheeses need.
  4. Let curds rest 15 minutes. Ladle gently into molds (brie molds are wide and shallow, camembert molds are narrower and taller). Do not press — gravity drainage only.
  5. Flip every 2-3 hours for the first day, then once the next morning.
  6. Unmold. Salt all surfaces lightly — about 1-1.5% of cheese weight total, applied in two rounds 12 hours apart.
  7. Place on a draining mat in a ripening container. Age at 50-55°F, 90-95% humidity.
  8. White mold should appear within 5-7 days. Flip daily.
  9. When mold fully covers the surface (10-14 days), wrap loosely in cheese paper or perforated plastic wrap. Move to a standard refrigerator (38°F/3°C) to slow ripening.
  10. Brie/camembert is ripe when the center feels soft when gently pressed. This takes 4-8 weeks from make day.

The ripening mechanism: P. candidum consumes lactic acid on the surface, raising pH. This causes calcium phosphate to migrate outward, softening the interior from the rind inward. That is why brie ripens from outside to center — the chemistry moves in that direction.

Blue Cheese — Penicillium roqueforti

Blue cheese uses internal mold. The mold needs oxygen to grow, which is why blue cheeses are pierced.

  1. Heat 2 gallons whole milk to 90°F. Add 1/4 teaspoon mesophilic culture and 1/8 teaspoon P. roqueforti powder. Ripen 60 minutes.
  2. Add 1/4 teaspoon liquid rennet. Set 90 minutes.
  3. Cut curd into 1/2-inch cubes. Let rest 5 minutes.
  4. Stir gently for 20 minutes. Do not heat — maintaining 90°F is fine. The goal is gentle whey expulsion without over-firming.
  5. Drain whey. Ladle curds into tall, open-ended molds. Do not press — the curds must remain loose to create air channels for mold growth.
  6. Flip every 15 minutes for the first 2 hours, then every few hours for the next day.
  7. Unmold. Salt by rubbing dry salt on all surfaces. Rest 1 day.
  8. Piercing: After 3-5 days, use a sterilized knitting needle or skewer to pierce 20-30 holes through the cheese. These channels allow oxygen to reach P. roqueforti spores trapped in the curd.
  9. Age at 48-55°F (9-13°C), 90-95% humidity, on mats. Blue veining should appear within 2-3 weeks of piercing.
  10. Wrap in foil at 4-6 weeks to slow mold growth on the exterior. Continue aging 2-3 months for mild blue, 4-6 months for strong.

8. Safety

Listeria and Pathogen Risk

Listeria monocytogenes is the primary pathogen risk in cheese making. It thrives at refrigerator temperatures (unlike most bacteria), grows in high-moisture environments, and tolerates salt concentrations up to 10%. Soft and fresh cheeses are highest risk because their high moisture and moderate pH support growth.

Mitigation strategies:

  • Use pasteurized milk for fresh cheeses that will not be aged.
  • For raw milk cheeses, age a minimum of 60 days.
  • Maintain scrupulous sanitation — sanitize all equipment with a no-rinse acid sanitizer (Star San or equivalent) before each use.
  • Monitor pH throughout the process. Proper acidification is the primary safety control.

Acidification and pH

The safety of cheese depends on achieving adequate acid levels. Target pH values:

Cheese Type pH at Pressing pH at Consumption
Cheddar 5.3-5.4 5.0-5.2
Gouda 5.5-5.6 5.2-5.4
Brie/Camembert 4.6-4.9 6.0-7.0 (surface)
Blue 4.6-4.8 6.0-6.5
Fresh (chevre, paneer) 4.5-5.0 4.5-5.0

Brie and blue surface pH rises during aging as mold consumes acid — this is normal and expected. The interior maintains lower pH longer.

Testing: Dip pH strips directly into whey expressed from the curd, or press a flat-surface electrode against a freshly cut surface. Do not rely on taste — the difference between pH 5.4 and 5.0 is undetectable on the tongue but significant for safety and texture.

Sanitation Protocol

  1. Wash all equipment in hot water with unscented dish soap.
  2. Rinse thoroughly — soap residue inhibits cultures.
  3. Sanitize with acid sanitizer (follow manufacturer dilution ratios).
  4. Air dry — do not towel dry (towels harbor bacteria).
  5. Hands: wash, then sanitize, then handle equipment.
  6. Never use iodized salt — iodine kills the cultures that protect the cheese.

9. Aging and Storage

The Aging Environment

The misconception is that cheese ages in a "cave." The mechanism is simpler: cheese needs consistent temperature, humidity, and air circulation. A modified refrigerator replicates cave conditions precisely.

Temperature: 50-55°F (10-13°C) for most aged cheeses. Too cold slows enzymatic activity. Too warm promotes unwanted bacterial growth and excessive moisture loss.

Humidity: 80-85% for hard cheeses, 90-95% for mold-ripened. Low humidity causes cracking and excessive drying. High humidity promotes unwanted mold. Measure with a hygrometer — do not estimate.

Air circulation: Stagnant air causes mold hotspots. A small computer fan on a timer (15 minutes on, 45 minutes off) provides adequate circulation in a modified refrigerator.

Building an Aging Cave from a Refrigerator

  1. Use a standard refrigerator with an external temperature controller (Johnson Controls A419 or equivalent, approximately $50). Set the controller to maintain 52-54°F.
  2. Place a shallow pan of salted water on the bottom shelf for humidity. Add salt to inhibit mold growth in the water.
  3. Install a small 12V fan wired to a timer.
  4. Place cheeses on food-grade plastic mats (not wood for beginners — wood harbors bacteria until properly seasoned).
  5. Install a digital hygrometer visible through the door. Check daily without opening the door unnecessarily — each opening drops humidity significantly.

Affinage — The Art of Aging

Affinage is the tending of cheese during the aging period. It includes:

  • Flipping: Flip hard cheeses weekly to prevent moisture pooling and promote even rind development. Soft cheeses should be flipped daily during the first two weeks.
  • Brushing: Washed-rind cheeses (like gruyere or limburger) are wiped with a brine-soaked cloth every 2-3 days. This promotes Brevibacterium linens, the orange smear bacteria responsible for their characteristic pungent aroma.
  • Monitoring: Watch for unwanted mold. Black mold — remove immediately by rubbing with a cloth dipped in white vinegar. Occasional blue or green spots on natural rind cheeses can be rubbed off with dry salt. Pink or red mold indicates contamination — quarantine the cheese immediately.
  • Record keeping: Log each cheese with make date, milk type, culture, target aging period, and weekly observations. This data is how you improve. Without records, every batch is a guess.

Storage of Finished Cheese

Once a cheese reaches its target age:

  • Hard cheeses (cheddar, gouda, parmesan): Wrap in cheese paper or wax paper, then loosely in plastic wrap. Store in the warmest part of your refrigerator (vegetable crisper). Will keep 3-6 months after cutting.
  • Soft cheeses (brie, camembert): Wrap in cheese paper. Use within 1-2 weeks of target ripeness. These cheeses continue ripening — eventually the interior liquefies and develops ammonia notes, which is over-ripe.
  • Fresh cheeses: Refrigerate in sealed containers. Use within 5-7 days. Do not freeze fresh cheese — ice crystals destroy the protein matrix and produce a grainy texture.
  • Blue cheese: Wrap in foil to limit further mold development. Keeps 3-4 weeks refrigerated after cutting.

Bring all cheese to room temperature 30-60 minutes before serving. Cold suppresses flavor compounds. A cheese that tastes bland at 38°F becomes complex and aromatic at 65°F. This is not subjective — soluble flavor compounds become volatile at higher temperatures, which is measurable chemistry.

10. Sources

  1. Salque, M., et al. "Earliest evidence for cheese making in the sixth millennium BC in northern Europe." Nature 493 (2013): 522-525.
  2. Johnson, M.E. and Lucey, J.A. "Major technological advances and trends in cheese." Journal of Dairy Science 89.4 (2006): 1174-1178.
  3. Kindstedt, P. Cheese and Culture: A History of Cheese and Its Place in Western Civilization. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2012.
  4. Caldwell, G. Mastering Artisan Cheesemaking. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2012.
  5. Carroll, R. Home Cheese Making: Recipes for 75 Homemade Cheeses. 3rd ed. Storey Publishing, 2002.
  6. Donnelly, C.W. Cheese and Microbes. ASM Press, 2014.
  7. Fox, P.F., et al. Fundamentals of Cheese Science. 2nd ed. Springer, 2017.
  8. USDA FSIS. "Listeria monocytogenes Risk Assessment." (2003).
  9. FDA 21 CFR 133 — Cheeses and Related Cheese Products.
  10. Kosikowski, F. and Mistry, V.V. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. 3rd ed. F.V. Kosikowski LLC, 1997.