Tags: [practical-skills] [formulation] [beginner]

1. Introduction

Commercial yeast has existed for about 150 years. Sourdough has existed for at least 5,000. Egyptian bakers around 3000 BCE were already producing leavened bread using wild fermentation — no packets, no refrigerated strips, no "active dry" anything. Every loaf of bread made before the 1870s was, by definition, sourdough (Carbonetto et al., 2018).

The word "sourdough" is misleading. The bread does not have to taste sour. What defines it is the leavening agent: a stable symbiotic culture of wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) instead of a monoculture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae grown in a factory. That distinction matters more than flavor.

A sourdough starter is a living ecosystem. Wild yeast — primarily Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kazachstania humilis — produce carbon dioxide that makes dough rise. LAB — primarily Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis, Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis, and Levilactobacillus brevis — produce lactic and acetic acid, which develop flavor, strengthen gluten structure, and lower the bread's glycemic index (Gobbetti et al., 2014). The yeast and bacteria are not competitors. They occupy different metabolic niches and actually feed each other's growth. The LAB produce amino acids the yeast need. The yeast produce CO2 that creates the anaerobic pockets the LAB prefer.

This symbiosis also partially breaks down phytic acid — the antinutrient in grain that binds minerals like iron, zinc, and calcium, making them unavailable for absorption. A 2007 study by Lopez et al. demonstrated that long sourdough fermentation reduced phytic acid by up to 62%, compared to just 38% with commercial yeast and a standard rise time. You are not just making bread. You are pre-digesting grain into a more nutritious food.

No special equipment is required to start. Flour, water, a jar, and patience. The process is slower than commercial yeast baking, but every step has a reason, and once you understand the reasons, the timing becomes intuitive.

2. Starter Creation

A sourdough starter is flour and water, left to ferment, and fed regularly until a stable microbial population establishes itself. That process takes 7 to 14 days. What happens during those days is a predictable succession of microbial communities — not random.

Days 1-2: Initial Colonization

Mix 50g whole wheat or whole rye flour with 50g water (room temperature, unchlorinated) in a clean glass jar. Stir thoroughly. Cover loosely — the culture needs oxygen exchange but not exposure to debris. Leave at room temperature (70-78F / 21-26C).

Whole grain flour is critical for initial colonization. The bran and germ carry far more wild yeast and bacteria than white flour. Rye flour is particularly effective because it contains more free sugars and nutrients for microbial growth.

Within 24-48 hours, you may see bubbles and rising activity. This is not your starter working yet. This is Leuconostoc bacteria — a fast-growing genus that produces gas and a faintly sweet, almost fruity smell. They dominate early but cannot survive the acidic environment that is about to develop.

Days 3-5: The Quiet Phase

Discard all but 50g of the mixture. Add 50g flour and 50g water. Stir and cover.

Activity often drops dramatically. The initial Leuconostoc population is dying off as pH drops. LAB species like Lactobacillus are beginning to colonize but have not yet reached critical mass. This phase discourages many beginners who assume the starter has died. It has not. The microbial population is shifting. Keep feeding on a 24-hour schedule.

Days 5-7: LAB Establishment

Continue daily feedings: discard to 50g, add 50g flour and 50g water. You may detect a strong, unpleasant smell — vinegary, acetone-like, or sharply acidic. This is normal. Acetic acid-producing bacteria are establishing. The smell will mellow as the community stabilizes.

Days 7-14: Yeast Colonization and Stability

Switch to twice-daily feedings if the starter is rising and falling predictably. Wild yeast populations are now establishing alongside the LAB. When the starter consistently doubles in volume within 4-8 hours of feeding and has a pleasant, mildly tangy, yeasty aroma, it is ready to bake with.

The float test: Drop a small spoonful of ripe starter into a glass of water. If it floats, there is enough gas production to leaven bread. This test is not perfectly reliable but provides a useful baseline for beginners.

Key Variables

  • Water quality. Chlorinated tap water can slow or kill microbial colonization. Use filtered water or leave tap water out overnight to off-gas chlorine. Chloramine (used in many municipal systems) does not off-gas — use a carbon filter or bottled spring water.
  • Temperature. Warmer environments (75-80F) accelerate colonization. Below 65F, activity slows dramatically. Above 85F, acetic acid production increases and the starter may develop harsh, vinegary flavors.
  • Flour type. Whole grain flours provide more microbial diversity and nutrients. Once established, you can transition to feeding with white flour if preferred.
  • Jar cleanliness. A clean jar matters, but sterility does not. You want diverse microbial colonization, not a sterile environment. Wash with hot water and soap. Skip the bleach.

3. Flour Science

Flour is not a commodity. Different flours produce fundamentally different breads, and the reasons are structural, not aesthetic.

Protein Content and Gluten

Gluten is not a single substance. It forms when two proteins — glutenin and gliadin — hydrate and bond. Glutenin provides elasticity and strength. Gliadin provides extensibility and stretch. The ratio between them, along with total protein content, determines what the dough can do.

Flour Type Protein % Best Use
Cake flour 7-9% Tender crumb, not suitable for sourdough
All-purpose 10-12% Acceptable sourdough, easier handling
Bread flour 12-14% Strong gluten network, better oven spring
High-gluten 14-16% Bagels, very high hydration doughs
Whole wheat 13-14% Nutritious but bran cuts gluten strands
Rye 7-10% Minimal gluten, sticky, best blended

Bread flour (12-14% protein) is the standard recommendation for sourdough. It forms a strong, extensible gluten network that traps gas effectively and produces open crumb structure.

Whole wheat flour contains the entire grain — bran, germ, and endosperm. The bran particles physically cut developing gluten strands like tiny knives. Whole wheat doughs ferment faster (more microbial food in the bran) but produce denser crumb. Blending 20-30% whole wheat with bread flour gives you the nutritional benefit without sacrificing structure.

Rye flour contains different proteins that do not form gluten in the same way wheat does. Rye relies on pentosans — gel-forming carbohydrates — for structure. Pure rye breads are dense and sticky by nature. Blending 10-20% rye into a wheat dough adds flavor complexity and fermentation activity without structural compromise.

Ancient and Heritage Grains

Einkorn, emmer, spelt, and Khorasan (Kamut) are older wheat relatives with different gluten characteristics. Einkorn has high protein but weak gluten — it tears easily under tension. Spelt has good protein but fragile gluten that overdevelops quickly. These grains are not harder to work with; they just require less mechanical development and gentler handling.

A practical starting point: replace 15-25% of your bread flour with an ancient grain flour. This adds flavor depth and nutritional complexity without requiring you to learn an entirely new set of handling techniques.

Freshness

Whole grain flours go rancid. The oils in the germ oxidize. Commercially milled whole wheat flour may already be partially oxidized by the time you buy it. If you have access to a grain mill or a local miller, freshly milled flour is a different product entirely — sweeter, more aromatic, and more fermentatively active. Store whole grain flours in the freezer if you are not using them within two weeks.

4. Baker's Math

Baker's math is not complicated. It is a ratio system where every ingredient is expressed as a percentage of the total flour weight. Flour is always 100%. Everything else is relative to that.

This system lets you scale any recipe to any size without recalculating from scratch. It also lets you compare recipes instantly. Two bakers can describe their bread as "75% hydration, 2% salt, 20% levain" and know exactly what the other is making regardless of batch size.

Core Percentages

Ingredient Percentage Weight (1 kg flour)
Flour 100% 1000g
Water 70-80% 700-800g
Salt 1.8-2.2% 18-22g
Starter (levain) 15-25% 150-250g

Hydration

Hydration is the ratio of water to flour, expressed as a percentage.

  • 65-70%: Easier to handle, tighter crumb. Good starting point.
  • 70-75%: Standard sourdough range. Open crumb, manageable dough.
  • 75-80%: Wetter, more extensible. Requires confident shaping.
  • 80%+: High hydration. Slack, sticky dough. Produces very open crumb but demands experience.

Start at 70% hydration. Move up 2-3% at a time as your handling improves.

Salt

Salt is not optional. It controls fermentation rate, strengthens gluten, and develops flavor. The standard range is 1.8-2.2% of flour weight. At 2%, a 1000g flour batch needs 20g of salt — about 4 teaspoons of fine sea salt. Below 1.5%, fermentation runs too fast, flavor falls flat, and the crust browns poorly.

Starter Percentage

The amount of starter (levain) you add controls fermentation speed. More starter means faster fermentation. Less means slower, with more acid development and more complex flavor.

  • 15-20%: Slower fermentation, more flavor development. Better for overnight bulk or cold retard.
  • 20-25%: Standard range. Predictable timeline.
  • 25%+: Fast fermentation. Useful in cold environments or when time is short.

Example Formula

A standard country loaf:

  • 900g bread flour (90%)
  • 100g whole wheat flour (10%)
  • 750g water (75% hydration)
  • 20g fine sea salt (2%)
  • 200g ripe starter (20%)

Total dough weight: approximately 1970g, yielding two loaves.

5. Process

Step 1: Autolyse (30-60 minutes)

Mix flour and water (no salt, no starter) until no dry flour remains. Cover and rest for 30-60 minutes. During autolyse, flour fully hydrates, enzymes begin breaking down starches into sugars, and gluten bonds begin forming without any mechanical input. This reduces total mixing time and produces a more extensible dough.

Autolyse was developed by French baking professor Raymond Calvel in the 1970s. It is one of the few techniques that produces a measurably better result with zero additional effort.

Step 2: Add Starter and Salt

Add ripe starter and salt to the autolysed dough. Mix by hand — squeeze the dough between your fingers, fold it over itself, rotate the bowl, repeat. Continue for 3-5 minutes until the starter and salt are fully incorporated. The dough will feel shaggy and uneven. That is fine. Structure develops during bulk fermentation, not during mixing.

Some bakers add salt 15-20 minutes after incorporating the starter, arguing that salt inhibits fermentation and the starter benefits from a brief head start. The effect is marginal in practice but does no harm.

Step 3: Bulk Fermentation (4-6 hours at 75-78F)

Bulk fermentation is where the bread is made. Gas production, gluten development, and flavor generation all happen here. The dough stays in a covered container at room temperature.

Stretch and folds: Every 30-45 minutes for the first 2 hours, perform a set of stretch and folds. Wet your hand. Grab one side of the dough, stretch it upward until you feel resistance, then fold it over the center. Rotate the bowl 90 degrees and repeat. Four folds per set. This builds gluten structure without degassing the dough or requiring a stand mixer.

After 2-3 sets of stretch and folds, the dough should feel noticeably smoother, stronger, and more cohesive. The surface will develop a slight sheen. Stop folding and let fermentation continue undisturbed.

Judging bulk fermentation by sight and feel, not time. Time is a guideline, not a rule. Room temperature, starter strength, flour type, and hydration all affect fermentation speed. A properly fermented dough will have increased 50-75% in volume (not doubled — that is overproofed for sourdough), feel light and jiggly when you shake the container, and show visible bubbles on the surface and along the sides.

Step 4: Pre-shape

Turn the dough out onto a lightly floured surface. If making two loaves, divide with a bench scraper. Using the bench scraper and your free hand, gently drag each piece of dough across the unfloured work surface in a circular motion. Surface tension builds as the dough grips the counter. You are not shaping yet — you are organizing the dough and building initial tension. Cover loosely and rest 20-30 minutes (bench rest).

Step 5: Final Shape

For a round (boule): flip the dough smooth-side down. Fold the bottom edge up to the center, the top edge down to the center, then the sides in. Flip seam-side down and use your hands and the bench scraper to rotate the dough, building surface tension by tucking the dough under itself.

For an oval (batard): same folding pattern but shape into an elongated form by pulling the top down in a series of overlapping folds, then rolling seam-side down and gently tapering the ends.

Surface tension is the entire point of shaping. A taut skin holds the loaf's structure during proofing and baking. If the surface tears, you have either over-tightened or the gluten is underdeveloped.

Step 6: Cold Retard (8-36 hours)

Place the shaped dough seam-side up in a floured banneton or a bowl lined with a floured linen cloth. Cover tightly with plastic wrap or a shower cap. Refrigerate at 38-42F.

Cold retard slows fermentation dramatically, allowing LAB to continue producing acid and developing flavor while yeast activity nearly stops. An overnight retard (12-16 hours) produces bread with more complex flavor, better crust color (from increased sugar availability), and a more open crumb structure than a same-day bake.

You can retard for up to 36 hours. Beyond that, overproofing risk increases even at refrigerator temperatures.

Step 7: Score

Remove the dough from the refrigerator. Invert it onto parchment paper (seam-side down, smooth side up). Score immediately — the dough should be cold, which makes clean scoring much easier.

Scoring serves a structural function: it controls where steam escapes during oven spring, directing the loaf's expansion. A single deep slash (about 1/4 inch deep) at a 30-45 degree angle along one side of the loaf is the classic pattern. The angle matters — a shallow angle produces an "ear" (a raised flap of crust) that is the signature of a well-baked sourdough.

Step 8: Bake

Preheat: Place your Dutch oven (lid on) in the oven at 500F (260C) for at least 45 minutes. The thermal mass of the Dutch oven is the key. It traps steam released by the dough during the first phase of baking, keeping the crust soft and flexible long enough for full oven spring.

Phase 1 — Covered (20 minutes at 500F): Carefully lower the dough (on parchment) into the screaming-hot Dutch oven. Cover with the lid. Bake 20 minutes. During this phase, the dough undergoes oven spring — a final burst of gas expansion as yeast activity surges before dying at approximately 140F (60C). The trapped steam keeps the surface pliable, allowing maximum expansion.

Phase 2 — Uncovered (20-25 minutes at 450F): Remove the lid. Reduce oven temperature to 450F (230C). Bake until the crust is deep mahogany — darker than you think. A pale loaf is an underbaked loaf. Internal temperature should reach 205-210F (96-99C).

Cooling: Remove from Dutch oven and place on a wire rack. Do not cut the bread for at least 1 hour, preferably 2. The interior is still baking via residual heat and the crumb structure is setting. Cutting too early produces gummy, sticky interior — not because the bread is underbaked but because gelatinized starches have not yet retrograded into their final structure.

6. Troubleshooting

Dense, Heavy Crumb

Causes: Underproofed dough (most common), weak starter, low protein flour, insufficient gluten development, or shaping that degassed the dough. Fixes: Extend bulk fermentation. Verify starter doubles in 4-8 hours at room temperature. Switch to bread flour (12%+ protein). Add an extra set of stretch and folds. Handle dough more gently during shaping.

Gummy Interior

Causes: Cutting too soon (most common), underbaking, excess enzyme activity from over-fermented dough, or very high whole grain percentages. Fixes: Wait at least 2 hours before cutting. Bake to an internal temperature of 210F. If using high percentages of whole grain, reduce hydration by 3-5% and extend bake time. Overfermented dough produces excess amylase activity, which breaks down starches into sticky sugars that never set properly — the fix is shorter bulk fermentation or a cooler environment.

Overproofed (Flat Loaf, No Oven Spring)

Causes: Bulk fermentation went too long, room temperature too high, too much starter, or cold retard exceeded 36 hours. Signs: Dough feels fragile and deflates when handled. Large, irregular bubbles on the surface. Loaf spreads flat rather than holding shape. Fixes: Reduce bulk fermentation time. Lower starter percentage. Ensure refrigerator is at 38F or below. In warm kitchens (above 80F), reduce starter to 10-15% or begin cold retard earlier.

Underproofed (Tight, Closed Crumb with Dense Core)

Causes: Bulk fermentation too short, cold environment, weak starter, or insufficient time in cold retard. Signs: Loaf springs aggressively in the oven but has a tight, uniform crumb with no open structure. May blow out along score lines. Fixes: Extend bulk fermentation until the dough has increased 50-75% in volume. Increase room temperature. Verify starter health. Extend cold retard to 16+ hours.

Poor Oven Spring

Causes: Overproofed dough, insufficient steam, oven not hot enough, weak shaping. Fixes: Preheat Dutch oven for a full 45-60 minutes. Ensure dough goes into the oven cold (straight from refrigerator). Score decisively — hesitant, shallow cuts produce poor spring. Build better surface tension during shaping.

Sour Flavor Too Strong

Causes: Extended fermentation time, warm environment favoring acetic acid production, rye flour percentage too high, infrequent starter feedings. Fixes: Reduce cold retard time. Feed starter twice daily at a 1:5:5 ratio. Reduce rye flour percentage. Ferment in a slightly cooler environment (68-72F). Acetic acid (the sharp, vinegary sourness) increases with longer fermentation and warmer temperatures. Lactic acid (the mild, yogurt-like tanginess) predominates in cooler, shorter ferments.

Crust Too Thick or Too Pale

Thick crust: Reduce bake time by 3-5 minutes during the uncovered phase. Ensure oven temperature is accurate — an oven thermometer costs less than a bag of flour and eliminates guesswork. Pale crust: Bake longer. Increase oven temperature by 10-15F. Ensure sugar availability — longer cold retards produce better crust color because LAB convert more starch to sugar during extended fermentation.

7. Equipment

You need less than you think.

Essential

  • Kitchen scale. Sourdough baking is a formula, not a recipe. Volume measurements (cups) are unreliable — a cup of flour can weigh anywhere from 120g to 160g depending on how you scoop it. A scale accurate to 1g costs under $15 and eliminates the single largest source of beginner error.
  • Dutch oven (4-5 quart). Cast iron or enameled cast iron. The Dutch oven replicates a professional steam-injected deck oven by trapping moisture released from the dough. Lodge, Staub, Le Creuset all work. A $40 Lodge produces the same bread as a $350 Le Creuset. The thermal mass and lid seal are what matter.
  • Mixing bowl. Large enough to hold the dough with room for expansion during bulk fermentation. Glass or food-grade plastic. Clear sides let you monitor rise.
  • Bench scraper. Metal or plastic. Essential for dividing, pre-shaping, and cleaning your work surface. Costs about $5.
  • Banneton (proofing basket). Wicker or wood pulp basket that supports the dough during cold retard and imprints a flour pattern on the crust. Available in round (for boules) and oval (for batards). Substitute: a bowl lined with a well-floured linen cloth or cotton tea towel.
  • Lame (scoring blade). A razor blade mounted on a handle for scoring the dough before baking. A double-edged razor blade held carefully between your fingers does the same job for approximately $0.10 per blade.
  • Parchment paper. For transferring dough into the hot Dutch oven without touching the surface. Pre-cut rounds or sheets trimmed to size.
  • Instant-read thermometer. Verify internal temperature of the loaf. Also useful for monitoring dough temperature during bulk fermentation — dough temperature at 78F is ideal for balanced fermentation.

Not Required

  • Stand mixer. Sourdough does not need mechanical mixing. Stretch and folds develop gluten more effectively and with less risk of overdevelopment.
  • Proofing box. A turned-off oven with the light on holds approximately 75-80F. A microwave with a cup of hot water works similarly.
  • Steam injection setup. The Dutch oven handles this.
  • Bread machine. Defeats the entire purpose.

8. Starter Maintenance

Regular Feeding (Active Baking)

If you bake weekly or more, keep your starter at room temperature and feed once or twice daily.

Standard ratio: 1:5:5 (1 part starter, 5 parts flour, 5 parts water by weight). Example: 10g starter + 50g flour + 50g water. This produces a mild-flavored starter that peaks in 6-8 hours at 75F.

Fast ratio: 1:3:3 — peaks in 4-5 hours. Useful if you need to build a levain quickly. Slow ratio: 1:10:10 — peaks in 10-14 hours. Useful for overnight builds or if you want to skip a feeding.

Discard excess starter before each feeding. "Discard" does not mean waste — use it in pancakes, waffles, crackers, pizza dough, or compost.

Refrigerator Storage (Infrequent Baking)

If you bake less than once a week, refrigerate your starter after it peaks from its last feeding. It will survive 1-2 weeks without feeding. The LAB and yeast slow down but do not die.

Revival protocol: Remove from refrigerator. Discard all but 20g. Feed at 1:5:5. Leave at room temperature. Repeat 2-3 feedings (every 12 hours) until the starter doubles consistently within 6-8 hours. Then build your levain and bake.

A starter neglected for 3-4 weeks may develop a dark liquid on top — this is "hooch," a byproduct of alcohol fermentation when the starter runs out of food. Pour it off, discard most of the starter, and resume feeding. It will recover.

Drying for Long-Term Storage

Spread a thin layer of active, recently-fed starter on a piece of parchment paper. Let it dry completely at room temperature (24-48 hours). Break the dried starter into flakes and store in an airtight container. This will remain viable for months or years.

Revival from dried: Dissolve 10g of dried flakes in 30g warm water. Let sit for a few hours until softened. Add 30g flour. Feed once daily at 1:5:5 until activity returns — this typically takes 3-7 days, depending on how long the starter was dormant.

Traveling or Gifting

Dried starter is the most practical format for mailing or carrying. A small envelope of flakes weighs almost nothing and ships at room temperature. Include a one-page instruction sheet for revival — many gifted starters die because the recipient does not understand feeding schedules.

9. Beyond Basic

Whole Grain Loaves

Increasing whole grain flour beyond 30% requires adjustments. The bran absorbs more water — increase hydration by 3-5% for every 20% increase in whole grain flour. Autolyse time should extend to 60-90 minutes to allow bran to fully hydrate. Fermentation accelerates because whole grain provides more microbial food — reduce starter percentage to 15% or shorten bulk fermentation.

A 50/50 whole wheat and bread flour loaf at 78% hydration, with a 60-minute autolyse and 15% starter, produces a hearty, flavorful bread with moderate open crumb. A 100% whole wheat loaf will be denser by nature — this is not a defect, it is the physics of bran particles severing gluten strands.

High Hydration (80%+)

High hydration doughs produce the open, irregular crumb structure of bakery-style sourdough. They also stick to everything, resist shaping, and punish sloppy technique.

Approach high hydration incrementally. Moving from 70% to 85% in one jump guarantees frustration. At 80%+, wet hands are mandatory during stretch and folds. Use a bench scraper for all handling. Shape quickly and decisively — prolonged handling warms the dough and increases stickiness. A well-floured banneton is critical; rice flour (which does not absorb moisture the way wheat flour does) is superior to bread flour for dusting at these hydration levels.

Coil folds replace stretch and folds at very high hydration. Slide your hands under the center of the dough, lift until the sides release from the bowl, and let the dough fold under itself. Rotate 90 degrees and repeat. This develops structure without the extensibility demands of a stretch and fold.

Inclusions

Seeds, nuts, dried fruit, herbs, olives, cheese — add during the last set of stretch and folds in bulk fermentation. Adding earlier risks crushing the inclusions during folding. Adding later does not distribute them evenly.

General ratios (percentage of flour weight):

  • Seeds (sunflower, sesame, flax, pumpkin): 10-20%. Toast first for flavor depth.
  • Nuts (walnut, pecan, hazelnut): 10-15%. Rough chop, toast lightly.
  • Dried fruit (cranberry, fig, raisin): 15-25%. Soak briefly in warm water and drain to prevent them pulling moisture from the dough.
  • Cheese (aged cheddar, gruyere, parmesan): 10-20%. Cut into 1/2-inch cubes. Stronger cheeses at lower percentages.
  • Olives: 10-15%. Drain, pat dry, halve or quarter.
  • Fresh herbs (rosemary, thyme): 1-3%. More than this overwhelms. Chop fine.

Flavor Development Techniques

Extended autolyse (2-4 hours): Produces a more extensible dough with deeper wheat flavor. Useful for high-protein flours that tend toward toughness.

Porridge bread: Cook 100-200g of whole grains (oats, cracked wheat, rye berries) in water, cool, and add during mixing. The porridge adds moisture, sweetness, and a creamy crumb texture.

Toasted flour: Toast 10-15% of the total flour in a dry skillet until golden and fragrant. Cool completely before mixing. Adds a nutty, caramelized dimension.

10. Sources

  1. Carbonetto, B., et al. (2018). "Genome Sequence and Phylogeny of Sourdough Yeast Isolates." Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 84(6). DOI: 10.1128/AEM.02100-17
  2. Gobbetti, M., et al. (2014). "How the sourdough may affect the functional features of leavened baked goods." Food Microbiology, 37, 30-40. DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2013.04.012
  3. Lopez, H.W., et al. (2007). "Making bread with sourdough improves mineral bioavailability from reconstituted whole wheat flour in rats." Nutrition, 19(6), 524-530. DOI: 10.1016/S0899-9007(02)01079-1
  4. Calvel, R. (2001). The Taste of Bread. Aspen Publishers. ISBN: 978-0834216464
  5. De Vuyst, L., & Neysens, P. (2005). "The sourdough microflora: biodiversity and metabolic interactions." Trends in Food Science & Technology, 16(1-3), 43-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2004.02.012
  6. Hamelman, J. (2004). Bread: A Baker's Book of Techniques and Recipes. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0471168577
  7. Robertson, C. (2010). Tartine Bread. Chronicle Books. ISBN: 978-0811870412
  8. Suas, M. (2008). Advanced Bread and Pastry. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 978-1418011697